Shakespeare Context and The Great Chain of Being (GCSE English)

Whichever Shakespeare play you are studying for GCSE English Literature, to achieve the highest grades in your exam, you need to understand more than just the plot and the complexity of the characters. 

Certain historicist scholars (who emphasise the importance of historical context and interpretation) argue that we must also consider the worldview of the author and the audience for whom the play was written. This idea was famously put forward by E. M. W. Tillyard in his influential 1943 book, The Elizabethan World Picture. Tillyard explains that Elizabethans and Jacobeans believed the universe was a divinely ordered system, where everything — from kings to commoners, from nature to human behaviour — had its proper place and was perfectly interconnected. When this order was disrupted, disaster followed. 

In Macbeth, for example, the murder of King Duncan is not just a political act; it shatters the natural and moral order. As a result, strange storms, hallucinations, and unnatural deaths occur, reflecting the chaos caused by humanity’s transgression against the cosmic system. Understanding this perspective helps modern readers appreciate why Shakespeare’s tragedies combine both moral and natural consequences, rather than only telling a story about human ambition.

In this blog, an expert tutor and PhD student in Shakespeare at the University of Warwick provides a clear overview of Tillyard’s ideas and explains how they can help you analyse Shakespeare in your exams. We use Macbeth as our example, but these insights can be applied to any of Shakespeare’s plays. If you want to boost your AO3 marks and deepen your understanding of Shakespearean context, strap in and follow along!

1. The Great Chain of Being 

The Elizabethans and Jacobeans believed everything in the universe was part of a divine hierarchy—the "Great Chain of Being." This concept explained the order, plenitude, and ultimate unity of God’s creation.

The order was fixed, stretching from God at the top, down through Angels, Humankind, Animals, Plants, and finally to Minerals and Chaos. Breaking any link in this continuous, unbroken chain caused chaos and disorder in both nature and society.

The Chain's Detailed Order:

This hierarchical structure is continuous, unbroken, and fixed, representing the established order of the cosmos:

1. GOD (Pure Spirit, Perfection, Unmoved Mover)

• The single point of ultimate being.

2. ANGELIC BEINGS (Pure Spirit, Immortal)

• Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, etc., down to Archangels and Angels.

3. HUMANKIND (Spirit, Intellect, Matter)

• The King/Ruler (The highest man, chosen by God).

• Nobility/Clergy

• Commoners

• (Note: Within humanity, there is a sub-chain of political hierarchy).

4. ANIMALS (Sensation, Matter)

• Higher Mammals (Lion, Elephant—the most noble and intelligent).

• Lower Mammals/Birds

• Reptiles/Fish

• Insects (The least complex creatures with sensation).

5. PLANTS (Life, Growth, Matter)

• Trees (Oak, Palm—tallest and longest-lived).

• Shrubs

• Grasses/Fungi

6. MINERALS (Inert Matter)

• Precious Metals/Gems (Gold, Diamonds—the hardest and most valued).

• Other Metals

• Stone, Soil

7. CHAOS / NOTHINGNESS (Absence of Being)

• The lowest point, representing pure non-existence.

Tillyard captures the philosophical significance of this order:

"The chain stretched from the foot of God’s throne to the meanest of inanimate objects. Every speck of creation was a link in the chain, and every link except those at the two extremities was simultaneously bigger and smaller than another: there could be no gap... God created as many different kinds of things as he did creatures... So that there is nothing which the bond of order does not embrace."

Application to Macbeth

Macbeth’s murder of King Duncan represents the ultimate act of disorder within the Elizabethan Great Chain of Being. According to this belief system, every part of creation had a fixed position, from God at the top, through angels, humans, animals, and plants, down to inanimate matter. The King, as God’s appointed representative on Earth, occupied the highest place in the human hierarchy. By killing Duncan, Macbeth does not just commit political treason—he violates divine order itself, breaking the sacred link between heaven and earth.

Shakespeare immediately shows the catastrophic consequences of this disruption across multiple levels of the chain. At the human level, Scotland descends into tyranny and chaos, as fear, suspicion, and violence replace harmony and moral order. At the natural level, Ross describes how even the animal world turns against itself:

“Horses—the minion of their race—turned wild in nature, broke their stalls, flung out, / Contending 'gainst obedience, as they would make / War with mankind.”

Here, the normally obedient horses, symbolic of nobility and control, become violent and destructive, mirroring Macbeth’s own rebellion against his rightful superior. Their unnatural behaviour reflects the collapse of the natural hierarchy, illustrating how one act of moral and spiritual disorder ripples through all of creation. Through this imagery, Shakespeare dramatises Tillyard’s idea that chaos in the human realm inevitably brings chaos to the cosmos, reinforcing the Elizabethan conviction that divine order must be preserved to sustain balance in both nature and society.

2. The Divine Right of Kings (The Chain and the King) 

A portrait of King James I

In Elizabethan England, the monarch was believed to be God’s representative on Earth, chosen to maintain the natural and social order. This idea, known as the Divine Right of Kings, meant that the king’s authority was sacred; to rebel against or harm the monarch was not merely political treason, but a spiritual offence against God Himself. The king’s well-being was linked to the health of the kingdom, so any attack on the sovereign threatened both human and cosmic order.

Application to Macbeth

Shakespeare emphasises that Macbeth’s crime is fundamentally a spiritual transgression. King Duncan is consistently associated with piety, virtue, and moral goodness, making his murder a form of sacrilege—the violation of something sacred. This is vividly illustrated when Macduff discovers Duncan’s body:

"Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope / The lord’s anointed temple, and stole thence / The life o’ th’ building!" (Act 2, Scene 3)

The metaphor of the king as “the lord’s anointed temple” presents his body as holy, emphasising the cosmic and moral severity of Macbeth’s actions. By killing Duncan, Macbeth not only commits regicide but also disrupts the divine and natural order, which leads to chaos in Scotland, unnatural events in nature, and ultimately his own downfall. Understanding the Divine Right of Kings helps modern readers and examiners see why Duncan’s murder is so shocking in the context of Elizabethan beliefs, and why Macbeth’s ambition is punished both morally and cosmically.

3. Correspondences (The Linked Universe) 

Elizabethans believed that the entire universe was interconnected, so that disorder in one part of creation inevitably echoed throughout the rest. Political corruption, moral failure, or human transgression were thought to disrupt the natural and cosmic order, with nature itself reflecting the resulting chaos. This concept, known as “correspondences”, meant that storms, strange animal behaviour, or unusual celestial events were seen as signs of imbalance in human affairs, reinforcing the idea that morality and nature were inseparable.

Application to Macbeth

Shakespeare vividly illustrates this principle in Macbeth. The events immediately following King Duncan’s murder demonstrate how nature mirrors tyranny. The famous line—"Dark night strangles the travelling lamp"—describes an unnatural darkness in the middle of the day, symbolising the moral darkness Macbeth has unleashed upon Scotland. Other events, such as horses eating each other and strange storms, further reinforce the idea that disorder in the human realm causes disruption in the natural world. By understanding the Elizabethan belief in correspondences, GCSE English students can argue that Shakespeare’s tragedies are not just stories of personal ambition, but also explorations of how cosmic and moral order are intertwined.

4. The Four Elements and Humours 

A diagram of the four humours from 1574

Elizabethans believed that human health and personality were governed by the four bodily humours: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Each humour was associated with an element, a temperament, and a set of emotions. A proper balance produced health and reason, while imbalance could lead to sickness, madness, or even evil. This idea influenced not only medicine but also literature and theatre: for example, Ben Jonson’s humours comedies (Every Man in His Humour, Every Man Out of His Humour) dramatise characters dominated by a single humour, exaggerating their traits for comic effect.

Application to Macbeth

In Macbeth, Shakespeare explores a similar idea through moral and psychological imbalance. Macbeth’s destructive “vaulting ambition” can be interpreted as an excess of the choleric humour, associated with fire, anger, and aggression. This internal, elemental imbalance drives him to irrational and immoral actions, from murdering King Duncan to ordering Banquo’s death. By understanding this humoural framework, we can see how Macbeth’s psychological and emotional state reflects Elizabethan beliefs about the link between physical, emotional, and moral health.

Conclusion: Applying Context to the Exam 

Understanding the Elizabethan World Picture, particularly the Great Chain of Being, is crucial for achieving the highest grades and securing AO3 marks in a Shakespeare exam. By considering this context, you can explain why the play’s atmosphere changes so dramatically after Duncan’s murder. The regicide is not merely a political act; it represents the highest breach of the natural and divine hierarchy, since the king occupies the top of the human chain. 

Shakespeare shows that this transgression has cosmic consequences: storms rage, animals behave unnaturally, and Scotland descends into fear and chaos. The disorder in the world is therefore not random; it is the inevitable and catastrophic punishment for disturbing God’s ordained order. Linking Macbeth’s ambition and Duncan’s murder to the disruption of the cosmos demonstrates an understanding of the historical and cultural context, which examiners reward as AO3. This perspective helps modern readers understand how Shakespeare’s audience would have perceived the events as morally and spiritually meaningful, reinforcing the play’s tragic impact and the importance of maintaining moral and cosmic balance.