Oriental Orthodox Christianity (Religious Studies)

The global Christian landscape is often divided into three primary traditions: Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant. Yet, long before the Great Schism of 1054 AD or the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, Christianity experienced another seismic divide, giving rise to a distinctive and often overlooked branch: the Oriental Orthodox Churches. Centred across Asia, North Africa, and the Caucasus, these communities gradually separated from mainstream Christianity after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD. Since then, they have faced centuries of misunderstanding and persecution, some of which tragically endures to this day. But what truly sets these Oriental Orthodox churches apart and why did they split from the rest of the global Christian Communion?

In this blog, expert tutors guide you through the fascinating world of Oriental Orthodoxy. We delve into its rich history, distinctive theology, colourful liturgy, diverse denominations, and ongoing global mission. The article will prove invaluable for A-level RS students studying the Developments in Christian Thought (DCT), as it cuts to the heart of key Christological debates in the early Church, including the Chalcedonian formulation. Additionally, ambitious GCSE RS students looking for additional subject knowledge will find numerous examples of unique liturgical practices and theological concepts that can be fruitfully compared with other denominations on the AQA, WJEC, OCR or Edexcel syllabi.  

The Council of Chalcedon (451 AD) and the Great Divide

The Oriental Orthodox Churches—comprising the Ethiopian, Coptic, Armenian, Syriac, Indian, and Eritrean Churches—represent one of Christianity's most ancient branches. Tracing their roots directly back to the original apostles and Jesus Christ's Great Commission, they consider themselves to be the “one, holy, catholic, apostolic church”. For instance, the Coptic Church specifically reveres Saint Mark, one of Jesus's disciples, as its founder.

These churches began their gradual separation from the wider Christian Communion during the 5th century AD. For Religious Studies students, it's vital to remember that these churches fully upheld the doctrinal decisions of the first three Ecumenical Councils: Nicaea I, Constantinople I, and Ephesus, which primarily affirmed the Trinity. The schism, therefore, did not stem from a disagreement over the Trinity, which they unequivocally accept, but rather from differing understandings of the precise relationship between Christ's divine and human natures. To grasp this complex and enduring controversy, we must first examine the developing Christology of the early Christian Church.

In the early 5th century, Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, argued strongly for the distinctness of Christ's two natures (divine and human) after the Incarnation. He emphasised that Mary was Christotokos (Christ-bearer), not Theotokos (God-bearer), as she bore only his human nature. Nestorius's Christology was condemned as heresy at the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD. The key reason for this condemnation, argued by opponents like Cyril of Alexandria, was that Nestorius’ theory divides Christ into two separate persons, thus undermining the unity and redemptive significance of the Incarnation. This perceived division threatened the very nature of salvation, leading to the council's decisive ruling against him.

On the side of the spectrum was Eutyches, an outspoken monk also from Constantinople. He zealously opposed Nestorianism but swung to the opposite extreme. His Christology, often labelled “extreme Monophysitism”, emphasised the unity of Christ's nature to such an extent that it effectively dissolved Christ's human nature into his divine nature, like a "drop of vinegar in the ocean." He stated that Christ was "of two natures before the union, but after the union, I acknowledge one nature". Further still, some of his formulations suggested Christ's humanity was not "consubstantial with us" (of the same substance as human beings), undermining the concept that it was truly God in the flesh who suffered and saved humanity.

To finally resolve these disputes and establish an official position on Christ’s true nature, the Church called the Fourth Council, Chalcedon (451 AD). Eutyches’ extreme Monophysitism (or “one nature” position)  was declared a heresy for contradicting the biblical idea that “the Word became flesh” (John 1:14). Instead, the Council officially declared Christ possesses two distinct natures—fully divine and fully human—united "without confusion, without change, without division, and without separation" in one person (hypostasis). This formulation became defining for the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, remaining in place to this day. 

An image showing the Council of Chalcedon, painted by Vasily Surikov in 1876

However, certain ancient churches in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and Ethiopia found Chalcedon's precise wording problematic. They believed its emphasis on "two natures" risked dividing Christ's person too distinctly, potentially reintroducing a dualism reminiscent of Nestorianism, which they felt had "crept back in" despite its prior condemnation at the Third Ecumenical Council. Adhering to their own Christological understanding, known as Miaphysitism rooted deeply in the teachings of Saint Cyril of Alexandria, these communities rejected Chalcedon's formulation. This theological disagreement led to a lasting schism, with these Christian communities becoming known as the Non-Chalcedonian or Oriental Orthodox Churches.

Sadly, these ancient Churches endured centuries of severe persecution. Their refusal to accept Chalcedon led to bishops and clergy being exiled, and their communities facing harassment and violence from Byzantine imperial authorities. From the 7th century AD onwards, under subsequent Muslim rule, they were typically subjected to dhimmi status. While this granted some protection for their faith, it also involved discriminatory laws, including the payment of the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims), and various social restrictions, shaping their cultural and political isolation.

Today, the Oriental Orthodox Churches represent a vibrant, living heritage. Despite their long history of persecution and isolation, they continue to grow, with significant diaspora communities emerging globally, including in the UK. In recent decades, there has been a notable increase in ecumenical dialogue with both the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. These dialogues have seen significant progress, with many theologians now agreeing that the Christological differences that led to the 5th-century schism were often more a matter of differing terminology and cultural misunderstanding than fundamental disagreement. Indeed, the Joint Commission for Theological Dialogue between the Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches (1990) affirmed that: 

"The doctrinal divergences which arose after the Council of Chalcedon are found to be primarily differences in terminology and emphasis, rather than fundamental differences in faith”.

So, was this ancient schism – this 'Great Divide' that led to centuries of persecution and the formation of distinct religious identities – ultimately a mere terminological disagreement, a tragic misunderstanding? Most contemporary theologians seem to think so. 

Theological Beliefs 

Monophysite vs Miaphyite: Historically, churches that dissented from the Chalcedon formulation were labelled "Monophysite." Derived from the Greek monos ('one') and physis ('nature'), this term implies a belief that Jesus Christ possessed only a single, unified divine nature, effectively excluding a distinct human nature or proper differentiation between the two. This, we have seen, was the position of the heretical Eutyches. 

However, the Oriental Orthodox Churches reject "Monophysite" as a mischaracterisation, often used by their Chalcedonian opponents to justify centuries of persecution. Instead, they champion the term "Miaphyite" (from the Greek mia physis, 'one united nature'). This belief asserts that in Jesus Christ, the divine and human natures are perfectly and indivisibly united into one single, composite nature (miaphysis), without separation, confusion, or alteration. They emphasise the profound and complete unity of Christ's person and nature from the moment of the Incarnation, seeing the two natures coming together to form one new, perfect reality in Christ. This aligns with the revered teachings of St. Cyril of Alexandria, who famously articulated: "One nature of God the Word Incarnate."

Pope Shenuda III of the Coptic Church

Modern Oriental Orthodox theologians further clarify this understanding. Pope Shenouda III, the former head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, stated: “As this union is permanent, never divided or separated… His Godhead never departed from His manhood for a single moment nor even the twinkle of an eye.” He thus clarifies that: “The expression ‘One Nature’ does not indicate the Divine nature alone nor the human nature alone, but it indicates the unity of both natures into One Nature which is ‘The Nature of the Incarnate Logos’.” This explanation underscores the core Oriental Orthodox conviction that Christ's natures are so perfectly integrated that to speak of them separately after the Incarnation risks undermining the indivisible reality of the Incarnate Word.

The Union of Fire and Iron: This Christological unity is captured by a famous analogy from St. Cyril of Alexandria. He used the example of fire and iron to explain the Incarnation and the perfect union of Christ's divine and human natures. In this analogy, iron heated by fire becomes glowing and hot, taking on the properties of fire while still remaining iron. Similarly, Christ's humanity (the iron) became fully united with his divinity (the fire); his human nature truly partook in the divine power, yet remained fully human, without being absorbed or changed into divinity. This analogy emphasises that Christ is a single, unified person (hypostasis), fully God and fully human, without either nature being confused, changed, or separated, directly countering Nestorianism's perceived division of Christ. This analogy continues to be cited by Oriental Orthodox theologians to clarify their position. It can also be used to explain the Miaphyte understanding of Christ in an A-level or GCSE RS exam. 

Ancient Liturgical Practices and Worship

Oriental Orthodox Churches are renowned for preserving incredibly ancient and rich liturgical traditions that often trace their roots back to the Apostolic age. Here are some of their most significant and enduring practices: 

Syriac Orthodox bishop Nicholas Abdulahad attending a Divine Liturgy

• Ancient Liturgies: Their primary worship service, the Divine Liturgy, often follows forms established by early Church Fathers such as St. Mark (for the Coptic Church) or St. James (for the Syriac Church), predating many Western liturgical developments. These liturgies are steeped in profound symbolism and ancient prayers. For instance, in the Coptic Divine Liturgy, the extensive use of incense represents the prayers of the faithful ascending to heaven and the presence of the Holy Spirit, creating an immersive, multi-sensory worship experience that connects the earthly and the divine.

• Liturgical Languages: They continue to use ancient liturgical languages that are direct descendants of early Christian tongues. For instance, the Coptic Church uses Coptic, the Ethiopian Church uses Ge'ez, and the Syriac Orthodox Church uses Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic, the language Jesus spoke). This creates a powerful sense of historical continuity, directly connecting worshippers to the sounds and words of the early Church.

• Sensory and Mystical Worship: Services are typically long, deeply spiritual, and highly sensory, featuring extensive chanting, abundant use of incense, the veneration of icons, and often prostrations. The atmosphere aims to create a connection to the heavenly realm, allowing worshippers to feel the presence of God and the saints.

• Fasting: Oriental Orthodox traditions observe numerous rigorous and frequent fasting periods throughout the year, far more extensive than many Western churches. These are seen as essential spiritual disciplines for purification and drawing closer to God.

• Sacraments (Mysteries): Like other ancient Christian traditions, they recognise seven sacraments, often called "Mysteries," including Baptism (often by full immersion for infants), Chrismation (Confirmation, immediately after baptism), and the Eucharist. Oriental Orthodox Christians firmly believe in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, holding that the bread and wine truly become the actual body and blood of Christ. However, they generally do not employ the term "transubstantiation" in the same philosophical manner as Western churches. Instead of attempting a detailed philosophical explanation of how this change occurs, they prefer to describe it simply as a "mystery" or "transformation." While fully affirming a change in the elements, their theology typically avoids the Western philosophical concepts of "substance and accidents" that the term "transubstantiation" implies.

• Veneration of Saints and Theosis: In Oriental Orthodox Christianity, saints are not merely historical figures; they are deeply venerated as living examples of faith, spiritual guides, and powerful intercessors with God. Like Eastern Orthodox Christians, they believe in the process of theosis (divinisation) – the process of becoming more like God through union with Christ. While they honour universal Christian saints like the Apostles, they also hold particular veneration for figures significant to their own distinct histories and theological traditions. Key figures include Cyril of Alexandria and St. Gregory the Illuminator, the patron saint of Armenia, credited with converting the Armenian king and establishing Christianity as the state religion in 301 AD.

The Six Oriental Orthodox Churches

The following Churches represent distinct historical and cultural traditions, but are all united by their Miaphysite Christology and rejection of Chalcedon. Unlike the centralised structure of the Roman Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox Christianity is a communion of six independent, self-governing (autocephalous) churches, a structure somewhat similar to that of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. They are: 

Ethiopian Orthodox Christians celebrating mass

1. Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria: Based in Egypt, this is one of the largest Oriental Orthodox Churches. It traces its origins to St. Mark the Apostle. It has a strong monastic tradition and its services are in Coptic, a direct descendant of ancient Egyptian. Roughly 10% of Egypt's population is Coptic Christian. Distinctively, the Coptic Church is also renowned for its vibrant and unique art, particularly icons and illuminated manuscripts, which features a distinctive style with large, expressive eyes and simplified forms, blending ancient Egyptian aesthetics with early Christian spirituality.

2. Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch: Originating from Antioch in modern-day Turkey/Syria, this ancient Church uses Syriac, a form of Aramaic (the language Jesus himself spoke), for its liturgy. It has a rich monastic and scholarly history, playing a crucial role in the transmission of ancient knowledge. In recent years, the Syriac Christian community, along with other Christians in the Middle East, has faced severe persecution, displacement, and violence due to ongoing conflicts and extremist groups, such as ISIS, in their ancestral homelands. This has tragically led to a significant decline in their ancient populations.

3. Armenian Apostolic Church: Reputedly founded by Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus, Armenia holds the significant distinction of being the first nation to adopt Christianity as its state religion in 301 AD. This makes its Christian heritage exceptionally ancient and deeply intertwined with its national identity. It possesses a distinct liturgy, calendar, and highly venerated monastic centres.

4. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church: An ancient Church with strong ties to both early Christianity and unique Ethiopian traditions. It uses Ge'ez as its liturgical language and has distinct practices, including biblical dietary laws and, famously, the claim to possess the Ark of the Covenant in Axum, a belief central to its national and religious identity.

5. Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church: This church gained its autocephalous status more recently (1998) after Eritrea gained independence. It shares a common heritage, liturgy, and theology with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, from which it historically emerged.

6. Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India): Also known as the Indian Orthodox Church, this ancient community traces its origins to St. Thomas the Apostle, who is traditionally believed to have brought Christianity to India in the 1st century. It represents an ancient form of Christianity rooted deeply in Indian culture.

Community Outreach and Mission 

The Oriental Orthodox Churches have a long tradition of community outreach, viewing it as a fundamental expression of their faith. This commitment is based on the Christian concept of diakonia—service and love for those in need.

Many Oriental Orthodox Churches establish or collaborate with charitable organisations to provide aid both locally and internationally. Groups like the International Orthodox Christian Charities (IOCC) work with these churches to offer emergency relief and development programs, including food, clean water, education, and health services in regions affected by poverty and conflict. The Coptic Orthodox Church, for instance, has its own charities that focus on poverty alleviation, education, and support for vulnerable populations such as refugees and immigrants.

At the parish level, community outreach is often tailored to local needs. Churches organise food pantries, clothing drives, and meal programs for the poor. Educational support, like tutoring for children and language lessons for new immigrants, are also common. Youth ministries and student associations are vital for engaging young people in their faith and community. Through programs like Sunday schools and Bible studies, the Church nurtures the spiritual life of its members. The Coptic Orthodox Church has also created specific study groups for students.

Oriental Orthodox Churches in the UK

The Oriental Orthodox Churches have a significant presence in the UK, serving a diverse and growing community. Here are four examples of Non-Chalcedonian churches which are currently active in Britain. Can you spot any in your area?

Icon from the Coptic Orthodox Church of Saint George, Stevenage, UK

Coptic Orthodox Church

The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria has a large and well-established community in the UK, primarily composed of immigrants from Egypt. The church has multiple dioceses and numerous parishes across the country. St. Mark's Coptic Orthodox Church in London, consecrated in 1979 by Pope Shenouda III, is considered the mother church of the Coptic community in the UK. Many parishes offer services in both Coptic and English to cater to their diverse congregations.

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has a growing presence in the UK, ministering to the Ethiopian diaspora. There are parishes in cities like London, Manchester, and Birmingham. These churches are important cultural centers, preserving the Ge'ez language and unique liturgical traditions of the Ethiopian Church. An example is the St Mary of Debre Tsion church in Battersea, London.

Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church

The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church serves the Eritrean community in the UK. Like the Ethiopian Church, it plays a vital role in preserving cultural and religious identity for its members. There are churches in various cities, including St. Michael's Eritrean Orthodox Church in London and St. Gabriel Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church in Portsmouth.

Syriac Orthodox Church

The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch in the UK is a Patriarchate Vicariate based at the St. Thomas Syriac Cathedral in London. The church traces its roots to the earliest Christian communities in Antioch and provides a spiritual home for Syriac Orthodox Christians, many of whom have come from the Middle East. Due to persecution in Syria, this community has grown in recent years.

Conclusion: Application to A-level and GCSE RS Exams

Understanding Oriental Orthodoxy offers immense value for your Religious Studies exams. It allows you to demonstrate a truly nuanced grasp of Christianity's rich diversity, highlighting the vast and ancient tapestry of Christian history beyond the familiar Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox divisions.

For those studying Developments in Christian Thought (DCT) for A-level RS, the Chalcedonian Formulation and the Miaphysite controversy are fundamental. As debates surrounding the precise relationship between Christ’s human and divine natures, they are core to understanding ‘Revealed knowledge of God in Jesus Christ’ and ‘The Person of Jesus Christ’ modules. Articulating the nuanced Oriental Orthodox objection to Chalcedon, and their distinction from the Nestorian heresy, adds significant depth by showcasing alternative Christological understandings. Moreover, this controversy directly illustrates crucial aspects of historical Church development and the complexities of religious authority, enriching A-level RS answers.

For GCSE RS, knowing about Oriental Orthodoxy enables you to perform sophisticated comparative analysis. You can effectively contrast Miaphysite Christological understandings (such as the nuances of "one united nature") with the Chalcedonian (Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox) position, or explore differences in liturgical practices (like the use of ancient languages, distinct forms of sensory worship, or unique calendars). This comparative insight adds depth to discussions on diverse expressions of Christian faith and worship. By incorporating these insights, you'll be able to provide more detailed and sophisticated answers in your GCSE RS papers.